HISTORICAL CONTEXT AT THE TIME OF THE COUNCIL
PART II: SOME HIGHLIGHTED EVENTS IN THE LIFE OF THE CHURCH DURING 16th AND 17th CENTURIES
6. A brief review to introduce the second part of the Historical Context
At this point, we will begin to reflect on the meaning of historical events – facts – but within the context of our faith. We need to review these events from our faith perspective to understand more clearly the meaning of events in history and particularly their effect on the lives of Catholic Christians over the last few centuries. It is important to realize that I am a protagonist in history, but I am not the only one. There are my contemporary human beings and our ancestors: we have a historical background and… God. We remember the first words of the first Encyclical Letter of Saint John Paul II: “The Redeemer of Man, Jesus Christ, is the centre of the universe and of history” (1). I will review some facts that will give an idea of the lives of Catholics from the 16th century on. Understand that I will not retell history. In the notes and appendices you will find comments and references to books you can consult for more background.
I want reiterate what I said in the beginning of this Conversation on the Second Vatican Council: “[…] while the background information I present is historical fact, the interpretation and conclusions are my own and do not represent those of any organization or affiliation.”
For Part II of the Historical Context I strongly recommend that you read two fundamental history books both of which are the result of many years’ experience and study. The authors, who lived in central Europe with all kinds of ecumenical situations, were firsthand witnesses of world events in the 19th and the early 20th century – and because they were diocesan priests, they had no compromise with any scholastic religious community’s way of thinking (2). • Franz Xaver von Funk, A Manual of Church History Volume 2. Published in English in 2 volumes by B. Herder, Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co. Ltd. London 1913. Originally published as Lehrbuch der Kirchengeschichte, Herder in 1886. All future references to this work will be cited as Funk, A Manual of Church History. You can access it in on-line libraries. • Jedin, Hubert editor. History of the Church. Published in English in 10 volumes. Originally published as Handbuch der Kirchengeschichte. 7 volumes. Verlag Herder 1962-1979, Freiburg. English translation by the Seabury Press, Inc. New York, 1981 Vol. 1 to 5, and by the Crossroad Publishing Company, New York 1981, Vol. 6 to 10. All future references to this work will be cited as Jedin, History of the Church Vol. no., and the name of the authors, if need be. You can access them in on-line libraries.
7. The Protestant Reformation and its Consequences (3).
There were always some heretical movements among the Christians, as we know from reading the Acts of the Apostles and the Epistles. After the great Schism of Constantinople, some Eastern Christian Communities separated from the Catholic Church. By the end of the 15th century there were many new ways of interpreting the Christian Message. New sects appeared, but they were short lived and had no significant impact. The Hierarchy was effective in helping those involved restore their Catholic Faith (4). In the 16th century, however, permanent schisms developed during the Reformation when stronger sects evolved.
For political reasons different kingdoms supported particular sects, causing much upheaval in society. As a result, political authorities in some kingdoms declared the profession of this or that faith, proscribing the practice of one’s religion. This caused violent conflicts. Some people were killed. Others were permanently oppressed or persecuted and some were forced to live in exile. The extreme was the outbreak of war between countries with different religions. Some historians talk about the war of religions period. It is beyond the limit of this Historical Context to study that period (5).
8. Catholic Reform and Counter Reformation (6).
The Catholic Hierarchy reacted slowly at the beginning of the Protestant Reformation. After a while, facing the facts and their consequences, there was a real spirit of deep renewal and the spirit of holiness proper of the Original Catholic Faith began to permeate the upper levels of the faithful in the Church.
During the years after the Council of Trent (1545-1563), the Catholic Church recovered its vitality. The Council of Trent was convoked by Pope Paul III to resolve questions in debate concerning doctrine and to bring about a renewal of the inner life of the Church. There were great popes with a deep sense of their mission in very difficult times. Paul IV, the former founder of the Theatines took out the dead wood, which had accumulated over the course of many years. Pius IV dedicated his ministry to completing the Council of Trent and implemented the decrees. St. Pius V, a Dominican friar, continued the application of the Council of Trent Decrees. Gregory XIII gave special attention to education and reformed the liturgical calendar. Sixtus V, a Franciscan friar and the popes who followed continued to apply the Council Decrees. All of these popes were burdened with having to govern the Pontifical States, a political task, which led them to become involved in treaties, negotiations and sometimes war with other States and Kingdoms. This last burden created more tension with Catholics in countries where there was conflict and these new problems prevented them from taking care of the Universal Church.
Years before the Reformation, Christopher Columbus discovered the new American Continent (1492), a land which had vast possibilities for evangelization. Asia was also a vast mission land. The settlement of religious communities, which occurred years before, was providential. When missionaries were sent to these new lands, the majority of them were members of religious orders. In North America, for example, we are familiar with Spanish names: think about the place names in California which was first evangelized by the Franciscans – San Francisco, Los Angeles, San Diego, Santa Barbara… In the Spanish speaking countries of the Americas the evidence is clear: the Franciscans or the Dominicans came first, think about the capital of the Dominican Republic, Santo Domingo. Later came the Augustinians and others. We will talk again, in this Historical Context about the role of the religious communities in the life of the Church.
9. The New Mission Countries
The Missions in the Church really began when Saint Stephen was martyred – he was stoned to death – and the persecution of the Christians began (7). But there were other important times in history. One time which is important for this study, occurred in the 15th and 16th centuries when the European Catholics discovered the American Continent and new Lands in Asia and Africa. All of this happened at the same time as the Protestant Reformation and the Catholic Counter Reformation.
The discovery of new countries in the 15th and 16th centuries created new opportunities for evangelization and the challenges grew more intense. Depending on who evangelized, and who had the most effective and attractive methods, people could become members of one of the many Christian denominations, or they could become Catholics. As well, there was another important element. Sometimes the people had their own distinctive cultural customs, many of them pagan: think about the First Nations in Canada and United States, or people in the Asian countries, for example. In other parts of the world people were forced to accept an imposed religion, such as in Africa, as a result of the Muslim jihads.
The Catholic Kingdoms of Spain, Portugal, and France sent explorers who discovered the American Continent and the Asian Coastlands. Spanish explorers discovered the American Continent and Portuguese explorers discovered the many Asian Coastlands and Africa. The French came to our country Canada, for example. French explorers came to the North American continent, particularly in the east and the southern states. Missionaries followed, St Jean de Brébeuf for example. The explorers had their own Catholic chaplains, who helped in the early days of Evangelization. When the first Europeans began to establish colonies they also had their own chaplains with them who took care of them, their families and the native people who accompanied them. The chaplains were usually diocesan priests. When they realized how many native people could be evangelized, things changed. Groups of religious arrived, who generously dedicated their lives to that mission. The first were members of well-established orders, particularly Dominicans and Franciscans who fearlessly entered these new Mission Lands. They broke the ground and named towns and cities when they were establishing their missions. After them, new religious communities like the Augustinians arrived. Then years after, the Jesuits, Carmelites, Mercedarians and others arrived. The Jesuits first established themselves in the cities and then went into the Mission Lands, where they created their particular mission style, the so-called “reservas (reserves), encomiendas, reducciones (reductions) or estancias”. In South America, so many of these Jesuit missions are well known to historians (8).
Let us turn now to the interest of the Holy See who established a Congregation of Cardinals for the Conversion of Infidels in 1568. At the end of that same century, Pope Clement VIII established the Congregation of Missions, and in 1622 Pope Gregory XV established the Sacred Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith. Gregory XV signed the bull of institution “Inescrutabili divini providentiae arcano” “which claimed for the Pope in the fullest degree the duty and right to spread the faith as the chief task of the papal role of shepherd of souls” (9). The future of the Catholic Church Missions rests in the Pope’s authority. There have been times in History when his intervention was essential. Through this Congregation the Holy See coordinates missionary activities and missionaries, under its wing (10).
10. The key for the renewal of the Catholic Church passed first for the renewal of the Hierarchy.
After the Council the documents had to be applied. The most important part was the disposition of the clergy who would implement them. The renewal of the Catholic Church after the Council of Trent had to start with the renewal of the Hierarchy. It was made up of wise and holy clergy who helped people become closer to God in a time of many changes in society, to clergy who were ambitious men with self-serving interests.
10.1. The Popes in the years following Trent were men of God who believed in the mission they had accepted. Some were exceptionally intelligent and practical in keeping the faith alive and with it there was a renewal of holiness. Detailed information about the period of the Convocation of the Council from the beginning of the 16th century to the first half of the 17th century is beyond the scope of this Historical Context (11).
10.2. The Roman Curia. These are the Pope’s close assistants who work alongside him on a daily basis to help him accomplish his mission of Universal Pastor in the Church. It had to be constantly renewed to meet the changing circumstances and needs of the times. We see a good example of this in The Sacred Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith, which was established in 1622, after two earlier versions, to serve the needs of the missions more effectively (cf n. 8, paragraph 4 in this same Conversation). Another example of this was the creation of the Pope’s permanent delegates in different countries which evolved into our present day Nuncios.
At that time, the way to meet needs and to solve difficulties or problems was frequently through the concession of privileges in both the kingdoms and in the Church. The Popes who governed the Church and the Papal States were men of their times, so they used the style of their times. The Roman Curia helped to replace that style. We see throughout the centuries to the present day, the continued effort of many Popes with a clear vision of the future and we see how others solved problems of their time giving privileges which created problems in the future. The latter was very common in mission lands. We will develop this point further when we will talk about The Canon Law.
10.3. The bishops. The first step would be the formation of bishops themselves so they could really understand the documents. Then they would form their diocesan priests and the religious working in their dioceses. After that, there was the formation of new priests and the organization of seminaries where they would be formed. At the same time there was the development of the diocesan curia and the officials who worked there. If we take into account the rudimentary nature of communications available, we can appreciate why it took so long to apply the documents.
When we read the Decrees about the Sacrament of Order published in the seventh session of the Council of Trent 15-07-1563, we can understand why the documents emphasized so strongly the importance of the physical presence of the bishop in his dioceses, to make the formation of priests and seminarians possible, to visit and meet his priests and the Portion of the People of God under their responsibility in their parishes, and establish penalties when they did not carry out their duties.
There were remarkable examples of dedication like Saint Charles Borromeo, Cardinal Archbishop of Milan in Italy (2-10-1538 to 3-11-1584) who transformed his Archdiocese beginning with the constant visiting of the parishes and the care of his priests. On the other hand, we have in Bartolomé de Las Casas (1484-1566) a good example of how a newly ordained bishop (30-03-1544), who was hardly ever in his diocese resigned (1547 or 11-09-1550 depending of the source) and went to work in the courts as a supporter of social justice for the native people.
10.4. The priest. The Council of Trent dedicated a lot of the time defining the essential part of our Catholic Faith, especially in the areas of Sacred Scripture, the Sacraments and also in Discipline. The sacrament of Order was better defined and theologically supported. The Council established the Seminaries for the preparation and formation of the new diocesan priest. Before the Council, priests were often formed by parish priests in the parishes. It took many years to realize the significance of seminaries.
Formation after priest ordination. Seminarians often were studying old fashioned Philosophy and old repetitive Theology. After ordination the opportunities for development were close to null. Today, this situation of priestly formation remains the same in many dioceses. Priests need to find out where and how to take refresher courses, receive updates and attend workshops. They must find their own resources.
10.5. The deacons existed as the lower level of the hierarchy. At that time in the Catholic Roman Rite, it was a step in the ordination of a priest; not a permanent state. In other rites it was also maintained as a permanent institution, as it was in the early Church.
10.6. The Ecclesiastical Seminaries for the formation of Catholic diocesan clergy were very effective instruments established by the Council of Trent in the Twenty-third Session. Time does nt stand still. Their implementation was very slow. In the beginning many seminaries were formed according to the models of religious communities and were directed by religious communities who had their own ways of spirituality and enough personnel… Some new religious congregations were formed with the specific aim of forming diocesan priests. In many places where the dioceses do not have enough qualified diocesan priests to teach in the seminaries, they are still run by religious communities. There have always been outstanding seminaries and dioceses which had well prepared teachers for both the formation of priests and their maintenance in active ministry. But they were the exception. The seminaries administered in the religious style were the most common (12).
10.7. The Dioceses, an Institution created by the Apostles. As a result of the needs and limitations, many dioceses, with some notable exceptions, did not have the resources necessary for complete organization. Many of them continued in the style of the religious communities because they relied on the religious clergy to attend and guide the people in their charge. The bishop himself was appointed from a religious community; this was a very common situation in the mission lands. Others received support from Archdioceses with better resources. This is still true today. The definition and functions of dioceses have been well established In Canon Law since the first centuries. The last detailed document before the Second Vatican Council was the 1917 Canon Law Codex where their raison d’être and organization was very well established. It states clearly the relation between the bishops and the religious communities working in their dioceses.
11. The Religious communities during 16th and 17th centuries. The growth of different communities and the birth of so many new ones. Some problems associated with them.
11.1 During the 16th century, some religious orders remained strong and supported the life of the Church particularly in the mission lands, but some created serious problems for the Holy See and the bishops. The beginning of the Protestant Reformation was a very difficult time for the hierarchy of the Church, particularly for the Holy See. There was also rivalry among religious communities and in-fighting in others. The Holy See did not need more tension and when differences escalated, a commission of cardinals and prelates recommended the abolition of all Orders in 1538. It was the beginning of a review of why they had been formed in the first place; their raison d’être. Consequently, some communities were reformed and renewed; some were divided and some merged with others. Many new religious communities were formed and some were suppressed altogether (13).
11.2. The most traditional orders of monks, for example the Benedictines and Carthusians, maintained their strength and continued their marvelous service to the Church in their monasteries. Other stable orders, like the Dominicans, were a great support for the Church. The Carmelites were renewed and strengthened by the great reformers, St. Therese de Avila and St. John of the Cross. The internal review of the Franciscans led to the formation of four more new communities: the Capuchins, the Reformed Friars, the Recollects, and the Discalced Franciscans. While some communities in trouble were suppressed by the Holy See; new communities, with a fervent spirit of service took care of specialized areas. The most significant of these new communities in the Western Civilization were the Theatines, the Barnabites, the Oratorians, the Oblates, the Jesuits, the Regular Clerks minor, the Somaschans, the Ursulines (a community of women), the Brothers of Mercy, the Fathers of Good Death, the Fathers of the Christian Doctrine, the Piarists, and others.
11.3. The religious, who made up the majority of canonized saints in the last few centuries, became the face of the Catholic Church in Christian Western Civilization for many Catholics – and non-Catholics – because of their high profile lives and, often, deaths. They were in a sense the elite, the heroes and role models for so many of the Catholic faithful; those who did not at least try to emulate them fell short of the standard. Many of them were the first missionaries who served in newly formed parishes on the frontier. Some stayed on to take care of parishes even after had been firmly established, or served in other parishes which had already been established. There, they stayed and took on education, hospitals and care of the poor in the beginning and, after creating colleges, universities and publishing houses, established themselves permanently. Many new dioceses could not carry out their obligations because of the shortage of diocesan priests and civil society could not fulfil its role in serving the citizens either. They relied on religious communities. This situation was typical the world over, but it was more obvious in missionary and developing countries (14).
11.4. As time went by, problems developed with some religious communities which had been valuable supporters in the years immediately after Trent. Some religious communities lost their original purpose and, since they were under the umbrella of the Catholic Church, serious problems arose between them and organizations in civil society. This created discord with other communities and dioceses. In extreme cases some were suppressed; the Jesuits, for example.
11.5 The Jesuit’s experiment consequences. The Jesuits’ involvement in civil society as an organization, since they were under the umbrella of the Catholic Church was to cause serious problems. They became involved in political and commercial activities trying to create and maintain organizations which part of civil society, but outside the laws and rules of individual countries. These situations created serious problems in both societies: kingdoms and royal states would not tolerate what was happening and eventually the royal states became involved in the organization of the Church. This brought grave consequences for the Universal Church and for the Jesuits, it meant they were expelled from many countries and eventually they were suppressed by the Holy See. Also it hurt the other religious communities, but the harm it caused the whole Church was far worse. It was the gateway to ambition and greed for royal states who wanted to annex properties and other material goods belonging to religious communities which had made their work possible. After a while there were places where dioceses were being harassed by royal states. There was also contempt for the Catholic Religion and discredit for the Catholic Church in general and special antipathy grew towards the hierarchy (bishops, priests and deacons) widespread. All this happened in between 1759 and 1773, at the preambles of the 1789 French Revolution. But the Catholic Church is a creation of God and its renewal was possible. (15)
11.6. The Second Vatican Council is the high point in the process of renewal: the religious communities were called to transform the society as any other baptized person might, but in a different way. The lay faithful are the ones called to transform society from within. The role of the religious is eschatological, not political: they themselves had decided to live outside civil society (cf. Lumen Gentium Constitution n. 1 about the Church which explained “to unfold more fully to the faithful of the Church and to the whole world its own inner nature and universal mission” and chapters 2, 4 and 6; Gaudium et Spes Constitution about the Church in the Modern World; Ad Gentes Decree on the Mission Activity of the Church; Optatam Totius Decree about the mission and apostolate of the laity; Perfectae Caritatis Decree about the Renewal of The Religious Life). The Council placed everyone in their place. A good way to express this is in the Epistle to Diognetus written in 135 A.D: The Christians are citizens of their own countries who respect the civil order and individually contribute to the good of society, not as a body or organization.
The Revised Codex Ius Cannonicum published in 1983, another important step in the Catholic Church renewal initiated by Pope Saint John XXIII, (Saint John XIII announced the Codex Ius Cannonicum revision at same discourse he announced the Second Vatican Council, on 25 January 1959) reflect clearly the mission of religious communities in the world:
“RELIGIOUS INSTITUTES (Cann. 607 – 709) In Can. 607 §1. As a consecration of the whole person, religious life manifests in the Church a wonderful marriage brought about by God, a sign of the future age. Thus the religious brings to perfection a total self-giving as a sacrifice offered to God, through which his or her whole existence becomes a continuous worship of God in charity.
2. A religious institute is a society in which members, according to proper law, pronounce public vows, either perpetual or temporary which are to be renewed, however, when the period of time has elapsed, and lead a life of brothers or sisters in common.
3. The public witness to be rendered by religious to Christ and the Church entails a separation from the world proper to the character and purpose of each institute.”
11.7. We will come back to the role of religious communities in Part III and Part IV of this Historical Context. They accomplished an important role in the life of the Church during the three centuries before the Second Vatican Council.
(TO BE CONTINUED) —————– (1) Encyclical Letter Redemptor Hominis. Vatican 4/03/1979. Ed. Poliglota Vaticana.
(2) Msgr. HUBERT JEDIN (1900-1980) was born in Upper Silesia, studied theology in Breslau, Munich and Freiburg. He was ordained priest in 1924. In 1927-1930 he worked in historical investigation in Rome. In 1930, he was teacher of Church History at the Catholic faculty of the University of Breslau. From 1936 until 1939, he worked for his diocese in Breslau. Stripped of all his academic titles and prohibited from work in public institutions in Germany by the National Socialists, because of his Jewish mother, Jedin returned to Rome. When he returned to Rome, after narrowly escaping deportation to the Concentration Camp at Buchenwald he lived at the Campo Santo Teutonico in the Vatican and was thus under the protection of Pope Pius XII during the German occupation. After the war he was rehabilitated in Germany and accepted a professorship at the University of Bonn in 1948. Pope John XXIII nominated him to assist in the preparation of the Second Vatican Council in 1960. He continued to work for the Council until it ended in 1965. His work includes over seven hundred titles, including forty books and 250 articles in journals. Jedin issued numerous publications on the Council of Trent, which, in his view, determined the relation of Catholics and Protestants for centuries. He addressed issues of controversy, trying to give interpretations of ecumenical perspectives at that time. In addition, he oversaw the publication of a seven volume Church History (1963-1979), an Atlas of Church History (1979), and the fundamental Lexikon für Theologie und Kirche (1957-1975, Encyclopedia for Theology and the Church). These references are taken on 23-07-2014, from the generous public dominion Wikipedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hubert_Jedin.
FRANZ XAVER VON FUNK (1840-1907) was born at Abts-Gmünd, Württemberg, and educated at Tübingen, at the seminary of Rottenburg am Neckar, and in Paris, where he studied economics. In 1870 he was appointed professor of theology at Tübingen and in 1876 became an editor of the Tübingen Theologische Quartalschrift. He studied philosophy and theology, and also found time to attend courses in classical philology and political economy with such profit that in 1862 he won the prize offered by the faculty of political science for the best essay. Some of his earlier publications treated subjects connected with political economy. Having received his doctorate of philosophy in 1863, he devoted a year to study moral theology in the ecclesiastical seminary and to preparation for the priesthood. He was ordained at Rottenburg, 10 August 1864, and his first work was in the care of souls; he felt, however, that the whole bent of his mind lay in the direction of intellectual labor. In October 1865, he obtained permission to proceed to Paris to pursue further study of political economy; the journey through France and his residence at Paris acted as a great mental stimulus. On his return in 1866, he was appointed tutor at the Wilhelmsstift, where his duty was to direct the personal studies and preparation for examinations of the theological students. When Hefele, then professor of church history at Tübingen, was called to Rome in 1868 as consulter during the preparation for the First Vatican Council, Funk acted as substitute. Hefele did not return to his chair, being appointed Bishop of Rottenburg on 17 June 1869, and Funk was appointed his successor. In 1870 Funk was named extraordinary, and in 1875 ordinary professor of church history, patrology, and Christian archæology, an office that he filled till his death. These references are taken on 23-07-2014, from the generous public dominions: Wikipedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franz_Xaver_von_Funk and from the New Advent website, Universal Encyclopedia http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06322c.htm
(3) Funk, A Manual of Church History, 32-40; 81-202. And the in-depth study of those historical times may be found in Jedin, History of the Church Vol. V: Reformation and Counter Reformation, 3-429.
(4) You may be interested in reading the detailed historical investigation in Jedin. History of the Church, Vol. IV: From the High Middle Ages to the Eve of the Reformation.
(5) Funk, A Manual of Church History, 81-202. Jedin, History of the Church Vol. V: Reformation and Counter Reformation 113-429.
(6) Funk, A Manual of Church History, 133ff. Jedin, History of the Church Vol. V: 431-645.
(7) The history of the missions, which began with the spectacular conversion of St. Paul (cf. Acts. 8,1 ff), one of the greatest missionaries of all time, continues in the every day Mission of the Church. The history of the missions is long and rich: a separate study in itself.
(8) For a detailed, well-documented study see: Jedin, History of the Church, Vol. V, chapter 45-47: The Springtime of the Missions in the Early Modern Period by Josef Glazik.
(9) As cited by Josef Glazik in Jedin, History of the Church, Vol. V, chapter 47: The Springtime of the Missions in the Early Modern Period, 611.
(10) The official site of the Holy See states: “The Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples (C.E.P.) was established by Pope Gregory XV with the publication of the Papal Bull Inscrutabili Divinae Providentiae (June 22, 1622). Soon after, other foundational papal documents followed: Romanum decet (published on the same day), Cum inter multiplices (December 14, 1622), Cum nuper (June 13, 1623), and Immortalis Dei (August 1, 1627). Until 1982 it was known as The Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith or Propaganda Fide. The task of the Congregation has always been the transmission and dissemination of the faith throughout the whole world. It was given the specific responsibility of coordinating and guiding all the Church’s diverse missionary efforts and initiatives. These include: the promotion and the formation of the clergy and of local hierarchies, encouraging new missionary institutes, and providing material assistance for the missionary activity of the Church. Thus, the newly established Congregation became the ordinary and exclusive instrument of the Holy Father and of the Holy See in its exercise of jurisdiction over all of the Church’s missions and over missionary cooperation. The Pontifical Urbaniana University or Pontifical Urban University is a pontifical university under the authority of the Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples. It is also known as The Collegio Urbano of Propaganda. The particular task of the Urban College “de Propaganda Fide” and later on of the Pontifical Urbaniana University was to prepare priests, religious men and women and lay people for the missions’ duties”. (11) For a brief review of the Popes in the 16th and early 17th centuries, you can read Funk, A Manual of Church History, 141-148. If you want more detailed information go to Catholic Encyclopedia Website. The information, however, is not well supported by historical investigation references. For formal and detailed information, go to Jedin, History of the Church Vol. V: Reformation and Counter Reformation. It’s reader friendly; just search the name of the pope in the index.)
(12) Note: For further brief details you can review the website of the Catholic Encyclopedia http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13694a.htm)
(13) Funk, A Manual of Church History, 178ff.
(14) Some Canadian examples. If you go to internet looking for St. Joseph Hospital, your browser will show you a cascade of cities with that name are in Canada. In Alberta religious did very well. In Edmonton for example, the Curia Offices are in a place donated to the archdiocese for the Sisters who in the middle of the 20th century created there an Intern School to recover girls with no opportunities. When they retired give the property in donation. The first hospitals have the Names of the Religious Communities who created them: Misericordia Hospital, Grey Nouns Hospital, Saint Joseph Hospital… The first missionaries in Alberta were the Oblates of Mary Immaculate who came from France. We will talk about these missionaries in other part of the Blog.
(15) The problem with the Jesuits had old long roots. The Jesuits received many “privileges” from the Hierarchy, particularly from Pope Gregory XIII (1572-1585) who gave them special support for the good work they accomplished after the Council of Trent, particularly in the area of education. For example, Gregory XIII founded many Colleges, but he named only one college, the Gregorian, a Pontifical University; the one run by the Jesuits.
The Jesuits began to be present in many places in European Kingdoms and in the Portuguese, Spanish and French colonies. Their members ran many schools and missions. They were confessors and confidential advisers to princes and soon acquired a strong spirit of independence which they did not hesitate to show bishops and even the Holy See. In the minds of many, and frequently in practice, they were the representatives of the Catholic Church. In some cases, bishops were relegated to second place.
Franz Xavier Von Funk, Manual of Church History Vol II, The suppression of the Jesuits p. 173s quoted in a few words: “As we have already had occasion to see…, the Society of Jesus had done great service in the cause of the Church. In the course of time, however, when nearly all the schools of the Catholic world had come under its control, and when its members were everywhere in demand as confessors and confidential advisers to the princes, it attained a position not devoid of danger. The Society soon acquired a strong spirit of independence, which did not hesitate to display even towards the Holy See. ” (p 173) “… we can perfectly understand how the storm arouse. A position of power, such as the Order has obtained in Catholic countries, was not one to be long borne with.” p. 174
In time, the number of Jesuits began to increase in so many countries. They numbered about 20,000 when they were suppressed. They became confessors of many influential and high ranking people in society. They created many schools and colleges in cities. By the second part of the eighteenth century they were in a position of power. The crisis with the Jesuits reached its peak when they were expelled from many countries. The suppression of the Order by the Holy See was for the peace and good of the Catholic Church.
In the Portuguese Colonies especially, the Society of Jesus was not following directives from the Holy See. Benedict XIV (1740-1758) needed to correct them and other religious orders for abuses in the colonies in the treatment and evangelization of the native people, which ranged from slavery to changes in Liturgy. He was only partially obeyed and they criticised him. But the problems with civil society began to increase.
In the Kingdom of Portugal, the problem was raging in the reductions (missions in South American Colonies) of the Paraguay ruled by the Jesuits. In time they became a de facto state in the royal state. Paraguay was a Portuguese Colony at that time. The minister Marquis de Pombal began action against them in the Holy See. Pope Benedict XIV appointed the Patriarch Archbishop of Lisbon, Francisco de Saldanha da Gama (1758-1776) visitor of the order in Portugal. He suspended all Jesuits under his jurisdiction from preaching and hearing confessions. In 1759 Pombal accused them of conspiracy and some were sent to prison and the rest were exiled by ship to the Pontifical States. They were also expelled from all the Portuguese Colonies in Asia, Brazil in South America, etc.
Shortly after, there was another incident in the Kingdom of France. The Jesuits had missions in Martinique where they managed plantations and needed money for this. Père La Vallete, Jesuit Superior in the Island Martinique Missions, borrowed the money. When war broke out in between France and England he encountered financial problems and couldn’t pay back the money. The creditors directed demands to the Jesuit Procurator in Paris. He refused responsibility for the negotiations of the independent mission, but offered to intercede. Père La Vallete, was sued in Paris by the creditors, the court order in 1761 to pay. The Jesuits appealed to the Parliament of Paris. Parliament supported the lower court and demanded payment. But they continued legal action and the Jesuits were supressed in 1763. When the King signed the dissolution edict, they were not forced to leave the country. They were, however, made to work as secular priests under the bishop’s jurisdiction and many of their schools and colleges were closed or transferred to other organizations. William Doyle in his “The French Revolution a Very Short Introduction (Oxford University Press, Great Britain 2001) quote on page 31 number and circumstances which can give idea of how extended was their activity: “The expulsion from the kingdom of a society which had educated most of the social elite for three centuries caused enormous educational upheaval. With the closure of their 106 colleges…”
Spain and the Kingdom of Naples followed in 1765. First, their students and admirers were removed from high office. The King of Spain, after deliberation with parliament, signed their dissolution and they were exiled from the country and colonies. In the spring of 1767, the Jesuits – about 6,000 in number – were suppressed. They were granted a small pension, dismissed from Spain, sent to the Papal States and finally to Corsica. Between 1767 and 1768 they were exiled from the Spanish Colonies in the American Continent, from Argentina to what is now the southern United States, then Spanish Colonies. By 1771 the last group of them were exiled from Philippines, a Spanish Colony at the time.
At the end of 1768 Jesuits were dismissed from the Kingdom of Naples and then from the Kingdom of Malta.
The Kingdom of Parma followed and there was conflict with the Holy See when the Pope Clement XIII (1758-1769) tried to help the Jesuits. Some of the pontifical territories were seized to force him to react.
When Pope Clement XIII died, the new Pope, Clement XIV, had to begin discussions to restore peace in the Church because so many of the Catholic Faithful were distressed from seeing all of this going on. After much deliberation with his colleagues in the Holy See, the bishops from the affected countries and the kings and princes of the kingdoms involved, the Pope issued the suppression of the Society of Jesus [the Jesuits] on 21 May 1773 with the Brief “Dominus et Redemptor”. Its members received the freedom to join other religious communities, to remain in their houses but with their functions suspended and obedience transferred to the bishop. They had the option of joining the diocese of their own choice. The General Superior remained in prison, thus preventing any attempt to rebuild the Society. He died there in 1775.
The Suppression Brief was not executed by the kingdoms of Prussia and Russia, where Catherine the Great forbidden it letting them to work in where is now actual Poland. They continue to work by there. Pope Pius VI reversed the suppression by the bull “Sollicitudo onmium ecclesiarum” in 1814.
If you are interested to study these events in depth, I recommend two sources:
– Jedin, History of the Church Vol. V: Section Four: The Springtime of the Missions in the Early Modern Period by Josef Glazik. Vol. VI Chapter 15: The propagation of Faith in America and Chapter 17: The Propagation of the Faith in Asia both by Johannes Beckmann. Chapter 31: Benedict XIV and Chapter 32: Clement XIII and Clement XIV both by Burkhart Schneider.
– Funk, A Manual of Church History Vol II, The suppression of the Jesuits 173-176.
Both of them have so many references if you want to go further.
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